Taj MahalAgraIndia1632–53 (photo: King of HeartsCC BY-SA 4.0)
Shah Jahan was the fifth ruler of the Mughal dynasty. During his third regnal yearhis favorite wifeknown as Mumtaz Mahaldied due to complications arising from the birth of their fourteenth child. Deeply saddenedthe emperor started planning the construction of a suitablepermanent resting place for his beloved wife almost immediately. The result of his efforts and resources was the creation of what was called the Luminous Tomb in contemporary Mughal texts and is what the world knows today as the Taj Mahal.
In general termsSunni Muslims favor a simple burialunder an open sky. But notable domed mausolea for Mughals (as well as for other Central Asian rulers) were built prior to Shah Jahan’s ruleso in this regardthe Taj is not unique. The Taj ishoweverexceptional for its monumental scalestunning gardenslavish ornamentationand its overt use of white marble.
Taj MahalAgraIndia (photo: David Castor)
The location
AgraUttar PradeshIndia (underlying map © Google)
Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal in Agrawhere he took the throne in 1628. First conquered by Muslim invaders in the eleventh centurythe city had been transformed into a flourishing area of trade during Shah Jahan’s rule. Situated on the banks of the Yamuna River allowed for easy access to waterand Agra soon earned the reputation as a “riverfront garden city,” on account of its meticulously planned gardenslush with flowering bushes and fruit-bearing trees in the sixteenth century.
EntranceTaj MahalAgraIndia1632–53 (photo: David Castor)
Paradise on Earth
Entry to the Taj Mahal complex via the forecourtwhich in the sixteenth century housed shopsand through a monumental gate of inlaid and highly decorated red sandstone made for a first impression of grand splendor and symmetry: aligned along a long water channel through this gate is the Taj—set majestically on a raised platform on the north end. The rectangular complex runs roughly 1860 feet on the north-south axisand 1000 feet on the east-west axis.
Aerial view of the Taj MahalAgraIndia1632–53 (underlying map © Google)
The white-marble mausoleum is flanked on either side by identical buildings in red sandstone. One of these serves as a mosqueand the otherwhose exact function is unknownprovides architectural balance.
The marble structure is topped by a bulbous dome and surrounded by four minarets of equal height. While minarets in Islamic architecture are usually associated with mosques—for use by the muezzin who leads the call to prayer—herethey are not functionalbut ornamentalonce again underscoring the Mughal focus on structural balance and harmony.
The interior floor plan of the Taj exhibits the hasht bishisht (eight levels) principlealluding to the eight levels of paradise. Consisting of eight halls and side rooms connected to the main space in a cross-axial plan—the favored design for Islamic architecture from the mid-fifteenth century—the center of the main chamber holds Mumtaz Mahal’s intricately decorated marble cenotaph on a raised platform. The emperor’s cenotaph was laid down beside hers after he died three decades later—both are encased in an octagon of exquisitely carved white-marble screens. The coffins bearing their remains lie in the spaces directly beneath the cenotaphs.
CenotaphsTaj MahalAgraIndia1632–53 (photo: Derek A YoungCC BY-NC 2.0)
Carving and inlaid stoneTaj MahalAgraIndia1632–53 (photo: Martin LambieCC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
Qur’anic verses inscribed into the walls of the building and designs inlaid with semi-precious stones—coralonyxcarnelianamethystand lapis lazuli—add to the splendor of the Taj’s white exterior. The dominant theme of the carved imagery is floralshowing some recognizableand other fanciful species of flowers—another link to the theme of paradise.
Some of the Taj Mahal’s architecture fuses aspects from other Islamic traditionsbut other aspects reflect indigenous elements. In particularthis is evident in the umbrella-shaped ornamental chhatris (dome shaped pavillions) atop the pavilions and minarets.
And whereas most Mughal-era buildings tended to use red stone for exteriors and functional architecture (such as military buildings and forts)—reserving white marble for special inner spaces or for the tombs of holy men, the Taj’s entire main structure is constructed of white marble and the auxiliary buildings are composed of red sandstone. This white-and-red color scheme of the built complex may correspond with principles laid down in ancient Hindu texts—in which white stood for purity and the priestly classand red represented the color of the warrior class.
The gardens
Stretching in front of the Taj Mahal is a monumental char bagh garden. Typicallya char bagh was divided into four main quadrantswith a building (such as a pavilion or tomb) along its central axis. When viewed from the main gateway todaythe Taj Mahal appears to deviate from this normas it is not centrally placed within the gardenbut rather located at the end of a complex that is backed by the riversuch as was found in other Mughal-era pleasure gardens.
View from the Mahtab BaghTaj MahalAgraIndia1632–53 (photo: Steve EvansCC BY-NC 2.0)
When viewed from the Mahtab Baghmoonlight gardensacross the riverhoweverthe monument appears to be centrally located in a grander complex than originally thought. This viewonly possible when one incorporates the Yamuna River into the complexspeaks to the brilliance of the architect. Moreoverby raising the Taj onto an elevated foundationthe builders ensured that Shah Jahan’s funerary complex as well as the tombs of other Mughal nobles along with their attached gardens could be viewed from many angles along the river.
The garden incorporated waterways and fountains. This was a new type of gardening that was introduced to India by BaburShah Jahan’s great great grandfather in the sixteenth century. Given the passage of time and the intervention of many individuals in the garden since its constructionit is hard to determine the original planting and layout scheme of the garden beds at the Taj.
From the outsetthe Taj was conceived of as a building that would be remembered for its magnificence for ages to comeand to that endthe best material and skills were employed. The finest marble came from quarries 250 miles away in MakrarnaRajasthan. Mir Abd Al-Karim was designated as the lead architect. Abdul Haqq was chosen as the calligrapherand Ustad Ahmad Lahauri was made the supervisor. Shah Jahan made sure that the principles of Mughal architecture were incorporated into the design throughout the building process.
Taj MahalAgraIndia1632–53 (photo: LASZLO ILYESCC BY 2.0)
What the Taj Mahal represents
When Mumtaz Mahal died at age 38 in 1631the emperor is reported to have refused to engage in court festivitiespostponed two of his sons’ weddingsand allegedly made frequent visits to his wife’s temporary resting place (in Burhanpur) during the time it took for the building of the Taj to be completed. Stories like these have led to the Taj Mahal being referred to as an architectural “symbol of love” in popular literature. But there are other theories: one suggests that the Taj is not a funeral monumentand that Shah Jahan might have built a similar structure even if his wife had not died. Based on the metaphoric specificity of Qur’anic and other inscriptions and the emperor’s love of thronesanother theory maintains that the Taj Mahal is a symbolic representation of a Divine Throne—the seat of God—on the Day of Judgment. A third view holds that the monument was built to represent a replica of a house of paradise. In the “paradisiacal mansion” theorythe Taj was something of a vanity projectbuilt to glorify Mughal rule and the emperor himself.
If his accession to the throne was smoothShah Jahan’s departure from it was not. The emperor died not as a rulerbut as a prisoner. Relegated to Agra Fort under house arrest for eight years prior to his death in 1666Shah Jahan could enjoy only a distant view of the Taj Mahal. But the resplendent marble mausoleum he built “with posterity in mind” enduresmore than 350 years after it was constructedand is believed to be the most recognizable sight in the world today. Laid to rest beside his beloved wife in the Taj Mahalthe man once called Padshah—King of the World—enjoys enduring fametoofor having commissioned the world’s most extravagant and memorable mausoleum.
Backstory
The Taj Mahal is one of the world’s great tourist attractionshosting millions of visitors per year. Though it was designated as UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 and is currently overseen by the Archaeological Survey of Indiaits heavy visitor traffic is just one of the many factors that threaten the integrity of the site.
One of the biggest risk factors for the Taj Mahal is air pollutionwhich discolors the exterior andsome experts thinkcauses acid rain that deteriorates the marble. Air pollution is caused by a multitude of factors including industryvehicle emissionsand the burning of household waste. The government of India designated an area called the Taj Trapezium Zone (named for its trapezoidal shape)a 10,400 square kilometer swath (about 4,000 square miles) of Agra encompassing the Taj Mahal as well as the Agra Fort and the historic Mughal settlement of Fatehpur Sikri. Oil refineries and coal-burning industries have been ordered to regulate their emissions or switch to natural gas within this zoneand most have complied.
There has also been a ban on auto traffic near the Taj Mahalair quality monitors have been installedand the Archaeological Survey of India has proposed a tourist cap and increased fees to limit visitor impact.
Another potential risk for the Taj Mahal is the drying up of the Yamuna Riverwhich flows along the rear of the complex. The river has been partially dammed upstream from the Taj Mahal in order to augment municipal water suppliesand some argue that the changes in the soil due to the lower water table may be threatening the structural integrity of the monument. Various activists and scholars have claimed to have found cracks in the marble platformsinking of the structureand tipping of the minaretsthough UNESCO asserts that
The physical fabric is in good condition and structural stabilitynature of foundationverticality of the minarets and other constructional aspects of Taj Mahal have been studied and continue to be monitored.
The Taj Mahal is rightly a top destination for millions of travelers. As global tourism grows and the economic pressures of industry continue to increasethe authorities who oversee the site must strive to implement legal and structural measures to ensure that this irreplaceable monument survives.
Backstory by Dr. Naraelle Hohensee