Of all the battles of the Texas Revolutionthe Battle of the Alamo (6 March 1836) is the most famous. It is not only among the best-known and most widely studied in American history but also around the world. The battle was the culmination of the 13-day Siege of the Alamo (23 February to 6 March 1836)during which Mexican forces under President and General Antonio López de Santa Anna (1794-1876) surrounded and vastly outnumbered the Texian and Tejano garrison of the Alamo.

On the morning of 6 March 1836Santa Anna ordered a full-scale assault on the fort. The defenders were all killed in the battleexcept for 5-7who surrendered. Since Santa Anna had designated anyone who took up arms against Mexico a land pirateand since pirates were executed without trialthose who surrendered – including David 'Davy' Crockett (1786 to 1836) – were killed immediately following the battle.

Santa Anna believed his brutal treatment of the Alamo defenders would send a clear message to Texian rebels to expect the same andsoend the rebellion in Texas. It actually had the opposite effectencouraging more men to join General Sam Houston's army to avenge those who fell at the Alamo andlaterat the Goliad Massacre on 27 March.

On 21 April 1836Sam Houston (1793 to 1863) defeated Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto – inspiring his men with the cry"Remember the Alamo! Remember Goliad!" – and afterwards forced the Mexican President to sign the Treaties of Velascogranting Texas its independence.

Background

The Alamo was established as a Catholic mission in 1718 in New Spain (modern-day Mexico) in the northin the region that became known as Coahuila y Tejas (Texas). The famous chapel known today as "the Alamo" was built in 1758andby that timethe mission had grown to encompass 3 acres (1.2 ha)with walls surrounding an inner courtyardresidencesand barracks. The walls were built to deter attacks from Native Americans and were never intended to withstand a siege or cannon fire.

After Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821the government invited Anglo-Americans to settle in Texas to provide a buffer between southern Mexico and Native Americans. The Texas Revolution actually began when Anglo-Americans began resistance to Mexican law during the Anahuac Disturbances of 1832 and 1835but "officially" it began on 2 October 1835 with the Battle of Gonzales.

The Texians won every battle between October and December 1835. The last engagement was the Siege of Béxaranother Texian victoryforcing Mexican General Martín Perfecto de Cos (1800-1854) to surrender the Alamo and leave the region with his troops. Texians then garrisoned the Alamo under the command of Colonel James C. Neill (circa 1788-1848). To many who had fought for the Texian cause at the Siege of BéxarCos' surrender and withdrawal from Texas was the end of the warand so they returned home. Neillhoweverbelieved Santa Anna would return to retake Texas.

In January 1836General Sam Houston – who agreed with Neill – sent James 'Jim' Bowie (1796-1836) to San Antonio to remove all the artillery Cos had left behindand anything else of useand destroy the Alamo because he did not want Santa Anna to retake it and use it to launch campaigns into Texas. Bowie and Neill both felt the Alamo could serve the Texian cause wellhoweveras a first line of defenseand so wanted it fortified and held. They went over Houston's head and appealed to the newly elected governorHenry Smithwho approvedand so the Alamo was fortifiedand volunteersas well as regular armybegan to trickle in. Among thesein February 1836were William Barret Travis (1809-1836)David 'Davy' Crockett (1786-1836)and Juan Seguín (1806-1890)who arrived with a company of Tejanos under his command. On 11 FebruaryNeill left to attend to family matters and turned over his command to Travis. Travis and Bowie then agreed to co-command the garrison.

The Siege

Travis was certain that Santa Anna would not march north until springwhen his horses and oxen would have something to graze onbut he was wrong. General Cos was Santa Anna's brother-in-lawand Cos' humiliation and defeat at the Alamo in December needed to be avenged to restore the family honor. Santa Anna was already in Texas by 12 February – and reports of this were given to Travis – but he discarded them as rumor.

Santa Anna entered San Antonio de Béxar on 23 February and raised the red flagmeaning "no quarter," above the San Fernando Cathedral. Travis answered this threat with a shot from the Alamo's 18-pounder cannon. Attempts at parley were rejectedand the garrison at the Alamo was told they must surrender unconditionallyplacing themselves at Santa Anna's mercy. At this pointTravis and Bowie decided to fire the 18-pounder againand the siege was begun.

For the next twelve daysSanta Anna bombarded the fort. On 24 FebruaryBowie fell illand Travis became the sole commander of the garrison. That same dayTravis sent out his famous letter"To the People of Texas & All Americans in the World," calling for reinforcements. He also sent an urgent appeal to Colonel James W. Fannin (1804 to 1836) at Goliad to come to the Alamo with the 350-400 men under his command.

While Santa Anna continued his bombardmentengineer Green B. Jameson tried to strengthen the walls while artillery officer Almaron Dickinson (1800-1836) fired back. Dickinson had brought his wifeSusanna Dickinson (circa 1814-1883)and their infant daughterAngelinainto the Alamo from Béxar on the 23rd; Susanna and Angelina would be among the 15 or so survivors of the battle.

On 25 or 26 FebruaryFannin left Fort Defiance at Goliad for the Alamobut his wagons broke downthe oxen wandered offthe company realized they had forgotten to bring any food with themand also that they had little ammunition. Fannin contemplated continuing on to the Alamobutfearing that he would not be able to break through the Mexican linesand aware that Mexican General José de Urrea (1797-1849) was in the area (and could strike at and take Goliad)returned to Fort Defiance.

On 1 March32 volunteers from Gonzales slipped through the Mexican lines to join the garrison andon 3 MarchJames Butler Bonham (1807-1836)who had been sent out to gather reinforcementsreturned to report that Fannin was on his way with 320 men and that more had gathered at San Felipe to come to their aid. UnfortunatelyBonham's intelligence was incorrect regarding Fanninand the San Felipe contingent went to Gonzaleswhere they waited to join Fanninwho never showed up.

By 4 MarchSanta Anna had run out of patience and wanted the Alamo taken by force in a full assault. His senior staff tried to talk him out of thisnoting that two 12-pounder cannons were en route and would arrive in the next few days. With thesethey arguedthe Alamo's walls would falland the garrison would be forced to surrender without having to sacrifice the lives of Mexican soldiers. Santa Anna dismissed their objectionsclaiming that a bloodless victory would have no honor. The Alamo would need to be taken by forceand every defender would be killed.

According to a later report (which has since become integral to Alamo lore)on the evening of 5 MarchTravis assembled the garrison in the courtyardtold them that an attack was coming soonwhich they probably would not surviveanddrawing his sabredrew a line in the sandtelling any man who would stand with him in defense of the Alamo to cross it. Every man did so except for oneMoses Rosewho slipped over the walls that night and later told the story to the Zuber familywho published the account in 1873.

At around 10:00 p.m. on 5 Marchthe Mexican guns fell silent after 12 days of bombardment. Travis posted three sentinels outside the fortand the garrison went to sleep.

The Battle

Santa Anna ordered the assault on the Alamo to commence before dawn on the 6th. He divided the army into four columns under the command of General CosColonel Francisco DuqueColonel Juan Moralesand Colonel José María Romero. General Sesmawith his company of lancerswould position themselves behind these columns to strike down any defenders who tried to escape or any of the Mexican soldiers who broke ranks in retreat. Santa Anna would hold 400 men back in reserve.

The north wall of the Alamo had been weakened by the bombardment of the last twelve daysand sothat was targeted as the focus of the assault. Cos and Duque would attack from the northwestwhile Morales came at the fort from the southand Romero would strike at the east wall. Scholar Jeff Long writes:

At midnightMexican officers began circulating among their troopsrousing those who had managed to fall asleep. Squad by squadthe companies and battalions assembled with their equipmentforming into columns. Working the coldnervous men into their proper groupslargely unaided by torchlighttoo and hour or two. Finallyat about one or two o'clockthe combatants moved out and crossed the San Antonio River in single and double file over wooden bridges. At the same timecavalry troops under General Ramirez y Sesma began saddling up at the Alamedatheir mission to scout the countryside during the battle and cut off any attempts at escape. Bullfrogs lay motionless along the steaming river. Cavalry horses exhaled silver frost and the cold Texas moon hung in a cage of clouds. At that hourthe doves still slept.

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The Mexican army moved into position around the Alamo by 5:30 a.m. The three sentinels outside the fort had been killed in their sleepand the entire garrisonworn out after twelve days of siegealso slept soundly. Long writes:

The first man to notice the Mexican charge was Captain John J. Baugh. A stickler for military formalitiesBaugh was the officer of the day. He had just begun his rounds at five o'clock when he heard the Mexican buglefollowed by a distant smattering of vivas. He turned to face the Alamo Plazadrew a deep lungfuland bellowed out"The Mexicans are coming." The massed Mexican columns rushed pell-mell toward their assigned walls…As the soldiers raced forwardSanta Anna's military bands were ordered to start playing the "Deguello"a cavalry tune…that meant "cut throat" or "behead" [signaling there would be no prisoners taken].

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According to other sourcesBaugh and the others in the Alamo learned of the Mexican assault when they heard "Viva Santa Anna!" outside the walls just before the attack came. Travis and his slaveJoesprang up instantly. Travis grabbed his shotgun andfollowed by Joeran to his post on the north wall. Crockett and his men took their position quickly at the palisade between the low barracks and the chapel. Bowietoo sick to move at this pointremained in his bed in a room in the low barracks. Susanna Dickinson and other non-combatants took refuge in the chapel.

First Assault

The column formation of the Mexican troops meant that only those in front could fire. This did not stop those behind from firing alsohoweverand so many were killed by "friendly fire" as they moved toward the walls. As they ranthe columns bunched togethermaking them easy targets for the Alamo's cannon. Mexican troops not cut down by their own fireor small arms fire from the Alamo's wallswere killed by grapeshot from the cannons. Since the Alamo defenders were low on cannonballsthey fired whatever they had been able to collect during the siege – chunks of horseshoesnailspieces of pots and pans – making the cannon intoessentiallyenormous shotguns.

The first wave of assault was driven back. They had ladders to scale the wallsbut these proved ineffective as they were pushed off by defendersor the soldiers were shot while climbing up. Many ladders were also lost or broken in the assault. Travis was among the first to fall in the assault on the north wall. He fired his shotgun and was then struck in the forehead by a lead ballfalling backwards into the compound. Joe ran to hide in one of the buildings.

Second and Third Assault

The Mexican army regrouped and attacked againbut they were driven back. As the troops again regroupedthey moved northwards to get out of range of the cannonand so the troops under CosDuqueand Romero were massed at the north wall. At this pointSanta Anna sent in his 400 reserves to press that area. The north wall fell when General Juan Amador scaled the wall and opened the postern. Mexican troops swarmed into the compound through this opening while more came over the wall. Shortly after thisMorales broke through the south wall. The Texians fell back to the long barrackssome to the chapeland some tried to flee the Alamo but were cut down by Sesma's cavalry. The defenders had no time to spike the cannon before leaving their positionsand so the Mexican troops turned these on the low barracksblasting open doors and wallsthen rushing in to bayonet the defenders. The worst hand-to-hand combat of the battle occurred in the long barracks.

During the first and second assaultsthe Alamo defenders had time to reload both cannon and small armsbut at the third assaultthey did not. Most died fighting using their riflesshotgunsand muskets as clubs or with knives and axes. Jim Bowie died fighting from his bed oraccording to some scholarsmay have been unconscious by the time of the battle and was quickly bayonetted. There are varying accounts of Bowie's deathbut most scholars agree that he died fighting. Crockett's position at the palisade was overrunand he and his surviving men fell back toward the chapel. According to some accountshe died fighting. Among the most famous images of the Battle of the Alamo is Davy Crockett's last standswinging his rifle as a club before he was overwhelmed. Many scholars todayhoweveraccept the report of Colonel José Enrique de la Peña (1807-1840)who fought at the Alamo and claimed that Crockett and five or six others surrendered and were executed on the order of Santa Anna after the battle.

In the chapelJames Butler BonhamAlmaron Dickinsonand Gregorio Esparza fired their cannon and small arms as the Mexican troops came inbut they were quickly killed. They were among the last defenders to fall. The non-combatants were spared – mostly women and childrenexcept for Travis' slaveJoe. The battle was over by 6:30 a.m. The Alamo was a smoking ruinthe defenders (between 185 and 250) were dead or dyingand the Mexican army had lost 400-600 soldierswith most scholars favoring the higher number.

Goliad & San Jacinto

AfterwardsSanta Anna personally interviewed the surviving non-combatants and sent Susanna DickinsonAngelinaand Joe to Gonzales to tell everyone what they had witnessed and make clear that the same fate awaited anyone who had taken up arms against Mexico.

During and after the 13-day siegeGeneral José de Urrea had won a string of victoriesdefeating the Texians at San Patricio (27 February)Agua Dulce (2 March)Refugio (14 March) and Coleto (19-20 March)butalthough under orders to take no prisonersUrrea had instead spared themsending them to prison in Matamoros. Seven days after the Battle of Coletohoweverwith around 400 prisoners held in Goliad at Fort DefianceUrrea marched out and left it to his senior officers to deal with the prisoners. All were marched out and executed by firing squad on Palm Sunday27 March 1836.

The fall of the Alamo and the Goliad Massacre led to the Runaway Scrapethe evacuation of Texas by Texians and Tejanosracing east for sanctuary in the USA. General Sam Houston picked up the men in Gonzales and retreatedwith Santa Anna following. As notedSanta Anna was certain the example he had set at the Alamo would deter further resistancebutin factmore volunteers swelled the ranks of Houston's force to avenge those fallen at the Alamo and Goliad. On 21 AprilHouston defeated Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacintorallying his men with the cry"Remember the Alamo! Remember Goliad!" Santa Anna surrenderedand Texas had won its independence.

Conclusion

In recent yearsmany scholars have noted how the myths that grew up around the Alamo have obscured actual history and that the defenders were not really heroes as they were fighting not for liberty but to preserve their way of lifewhich included slavery – a practice outlawed by Mexico in 1829. The Mexican governmentit has been notedmade no harsh demands on Anglo-American immigrants andin factgave concessionsespecially concerning slavery.

Even sothis does not diminish the status of the Alamo's defenders. Scholar William C. Davis comments:

The better braverythe real couragelay in the fact that for nearly two weeks TravisCrockettBowieand the rest knowingly placed and kept themselves in harm's wayaware each day that the Mexicans could overwhelm them at the next dawnand yet they stayed. Regardless of their motives for enlisting in the revolution and coming to the Alamothat alone made them heroes.

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However one chooses to remember the Alamo todayDavis' point should be central to any reflection.