Bridging for Better Conservation Fit in Indonesia's Coastal-Marine Systems

Abstract

Efforts to improve the fit between conservation initiatives (e.g.marine protected areasno-take zones) and the dynamic social dimensions of coastal-marine systems remain underdeveloped. We empirically illustrate here how opportunities to enhance “conservation fit” are influenced by bridging organizations that serve to (1) better align conservation initiatives with characteristics of the social context that influence conservation outcomes (e.g.institutionsculturevalueslocal practice)(2) foster coordinated and adaptive approaches to conservation that are reflective of multiple perspectives and knowledgeand (3) better connect people and conservation actions across jurisdictional and geographical boundaries. Qualitative methods were used in this researchincluding semi-structured interviewsobservation of key events and meetingsand literature review. We draw from three coastal-marine conservation cases in BaliIndonesiathat exemplify different approaches to bridging for conservation fit: the Bali MPA Networkthe Nusa Penida MPAand the East Buleleng Conservation Zone. Our synthesis of these cases identifies different strategies used by bridging organizations to deal with conservation fit issuesincluding their capacity to integrate actors and perspectives using flexible approachesactualize hybrid forms of decision-makingbuild capacity and leadershipand foster cross-scale conservation and scale-bridging social networks. We also examine the limitations of bridging organizations and offer direction for future research for coastal-marine conservation in Indonesia specificallyand the Coral Triangle region generally. More broadlythis analysis contributes new insights on emerging forms of governance designed to deliberatively fit conservation initiatives to coastal-marine social-ecological systems experiencing rapid change.

Introduction

The success of marine conservation in southeast Asia's Coral Triangle (CT) requires modes of governance that deliberately fit conservation initiatives to underlying social dimensions. Insufficient consideration of social dimensions in conservation initiatives has contributed substantially to limited progress in this regard. To this endwe investigate the issue of “conservation fit,” which we refer to here as the dynamic alignment of the governing system for conservation and the social dimensions of a system that influence the outcomes of conservation policy and practice.

Governance is an umbrella term that refers to the “…integrated system of formal and informal rulesrule-making systemsand actor-networks at all levels of human society…” (Biermann et al.2009p. 4). For our purposesgovernance describes the interactions of different actors and networks that formulate and implement conservation. By social dimensions we refer to the multilevel patterns of interaction between actors and organizationstheir valuesinterests and social customsand the processes and instruments that drivesupport or constrain the practice of conservation (sensu Galaz et al.2008; Meek2013; Epstein et al.2015). This characterization recognizes that governance systems affectare affected byand are also a part of the broader suite of social dimensions that make up coastal-marine social-ecological systems.

To examine the issue of conservation fitwe focus on the role of bridging organizationswhich are entities that connect social actors or groups through some form of bridging process (Crona and Parker2012). These organizations link actors and actions to facilitate coordinatedintegrated responses in contexts where resources or capacity are limited. Howeverfew studies have explored their role in developingimplementing and adapting conservation initiativesor their influence on conservation outcomes (e.g.Jamal et al.2007; Schultz and Lundholm2010; Jacobson and Robertson2012; Bodin et al.2014). Building on previous work in the region (Berdej and Armitage2016)this paper empirically demonstrates that bridging organizations can help to better align conservation initiatives with their social contextfoster appropriate processes and instruments to pursue coordinated and adaptive conservationand better connect people and conservation actions across scales and levels. Howeveras this paper also showsbridging organizations are not without their limitationsand we identify a number of constraints or barriers that require further consideration.

Our focus here is on the congruence of the governing system for conservation and the other crucial social dimensions of a system that influence overall conservation effectiveness—what we term “conservation fit.” The concept builds on critiques of conservation initiatives that point to a lack of meaningful engagement withand integration ofsocial dimensions such as socioeconomic or cultural contextstakeholder relationsknowledge diversityor the multiplicity of political scales and domains of action (see CT: Clifton2009; Foale et al.2013; Fidelman et al.2014; von Heland et al.2014). Where there is insufficient consideration (or “poor” fit)—as in cases where new conservation policies and rules are introduced without attention to local or indigenous legacies (Majors2008)or where trade-offs between biodiversity conservation and development are overlooked (Foale et al.2013)problems of ineffective and inefficient conservation often result. As suchthe concept of conservation fit is a useful frame to understand why certain conservation initiatives may not work as intended and how they might be strengthened via bridging organizations.

Enhancing conservation fit in the CT is challenging because of the immense diversity of actors and interests across geographical and jurisdictional scalesand the differing socio-politicalcultural and economic contexts (e.g.Mills et al.2010; Fidelman et al.2012; Foale et al.2013; von Heland et al.2014; Cohen and Steenbergen2015). In Indonesiathe partial decentralization of government has afforded greater opportunity for participatory approaches in conservationbut has also contributed to political tensions between levelsgovernance fragmentation and conflicting government policies (Patlis2005; Wiadnya et al.2011). Furthermarine conservation efforts in this region are facing rapidly expanding and increasingly mobile populationsemerging markets for marine commoditiesand a limited ability to enforce rules and regulations (Majors2008). Many scholars across the CT have stressed the importance of connecting people and conservation practice in ways that communicate knowledge and foster learningreconcile diverse objectives and viewsand which forge relations across domains and governance levels (e.g.Fidelman et al.2012; von Heland et al.2014; Pietri et al.2015). Howeveruntil recentlyrelatively little work has explicitly investigated the influence of bridging organizations in facilitating these needs in the CTand none has examined their role in the practice of conservation in Indonesia (see Berdej and Armitage2016).

In the following sectionwe introduce the concept of conservation fit and examine bridging organizations as an organizational strategy to foster fit. We outline three categories of conservation fit that serve to frame the analysisand highlight their key challenges in the CT. We then present three cases from BaliIndonesiathat illustrate the role of bridging organizations in different conservation contextsand draw on these cases to generate insights about key strategies applied by bridging organizations to influence conservation fit. Finallywe identify a number of constraints or barriers that require further considerationand speak to commonalities underlying successful bridging approaches that are relevant beyond the particular conservation settings we examine hererecognizing that each case reflects a slightly different socialpolitical and ecological context.

Theoretical background

Defining the problem of “conservation fit”

Our concept of “conservation fit” emerges from a broader discourse on institutional and governance fit. For examplefit has been discussed as part of institutional dimensions of global environmental change (Young2002; Ekstrom and Young2009)resilience of social-ecological systems (Folke et al.1998/2007; Galaz et al.2008; Epstein et al.2015)and common pool resources (Ostrom2007). Much has been written on how well governing systems “fit” ecological dynamics (e.g.Folke et al.1998/2007; Ekstrom and Young2009)andmore recentlyon the fit between governing systems and social dynamics (e.g.Brown2003; Meek2013; Pittman et al.2015). Howeverexactly what constitutes a good fit and how such fit can be achieved remains a research puzzle (Ekstrom and Young2009; Bodin et al.2014). In particularlimited understanding of the conditions and implications of fit for the practice of marine conservation is a gap in the literature.

Conservation initiatives should be more effective in the long-term where the governance system is aligned withand responsive tothe complexity and dynamism of the social system (e.g.Brown2003; Christie et al.2003; Christie20042011; Shackeroff et al.2009; Ban et al.2013; Kittinger et al.2014; von Heland and Clifton2015). Our concept of fit responds to calls for more participatory and pluralistic conservation approaches that allow for learning and adapting (Berkes2007; Armitage et al.2012)clarify hard-choices and trade-offs (Hirsch et al.2011)and which seek social legitimacy and ethical imperatives in conservation (Brechin et al.2003; Mascia2003)—all of which have been difficult to actualize in practiceas detailed below.

A “poor” fitas mentionedcan undermine the effectiveness of conservation initiatives by resulting in inadequate understanding of contentious social issuesunintended negative consequencesmissed opportunities for positive changeand an incomplete understanding of the system (Christie et al.2003; Christie2011). Situations of “poor” fit (or misfit) can arisefor examplewhere governance underplays community norms and livelihood needs (Clifton2009; Ferse et al.2010)or is unable to account for diverse worldviews and belief systems (Majors2008; Clifton and Majors2012). Alternativelya “good” fit should contribute to the salience of conservation by generating meaningful benefitsimproving perceived legitimacy and sense of ownershipand by reducing the probability of negative impacts. Positive examples include cases where conservation initiatives are hybridized with local or customary practice (Cinner and Aswani2007)social networks are built to connect local management to higher-level policy-making (Cohen et al.2012)or where governance learning networks are created to bridge cultural and jurisdictional boundaries (Pietri et al.2015).

Improved conservation fit alone may be necessarybut not sufficient for conservation success. Even where conservation initiatives are compatible with social dimensionsthey may not adequately provide for ecological dimensions or “ecological fit.” Althoughour focus in this paper is on social dimensionswe join other authors in affirming the importance of engaging both dimensions in the context of developing and ongoing conservation initiatives (e.g.Epstein et al.2015). There is also no “ideal” conservation fit since social systems and the factors that influence them differ and are constantly changing. Insteadfit is a means to an endnot an end in itself. For analytical purposeswe distinguish three general categories of conservation fit associated with: (1) aligning conservation initiatives with characteristics of the social context (e.g.institutionsculturevalueslocal practice)(2) enabling governance processes and instruments to bring together and meaningfully engage actorstheir interestsnorms and knowledge to pursue coordinated and adaptive conservationand (3) effectively linking conservation initiatives and social actors across scales and levels (Table 1). We make no claim to have articulated all social dimensions influencing conservation policy and practice at this point. Ratherthese categories are reflective of the main issues from the literature on fit theoryand which are derived from applicable cases and lessons-learned from across the CT.

Attempts to identify strategies to expand the inclusion of social dimensions in conservation in the CT have been plentiful (e.g.Lowry et al.2009; Mills et al.2010; Green et al.2011; Foale et al.2013; Weeks et al.2014a,b; Berdej and Armitage2016)and a number of relevant conceptual frameworks are proposed (e.g.Ban et al.2013; Kittinger et al.2014). All are useful when discussing issues of conservation fit. Howeverthere is limited practice-based guidance on how to move from recognition of the need for greater inclusion of social dimensions to actual operationalization of best practices in different contexts. Practice-based strategies to grapple with conservation fit issues (via e.g.trade-off analysisecosystem-based managementintegrated coastal zone management) have been slow to emerge and face a range of implementation barriers (e.g.Folke et al.1998/2007; Christie2011; Hirsch et al.2011; Kittinger et al.2014). In the next section we introduce bridging organizations as one potential way to help actualize the conditions and processes necessary to enhance conservation fit.

Bridging organizations for fit

Bridging organizations can help to improve conservation fit by taking on a number of roles and responsibilities. A bridging organizationas mentionedis defined as an entity that connects diverse actors or groups through some form of strategic bridging process (Crona and Parker2012). These organizations come in many shapes and sizesas well as levels of formalization. Brown (1991) argued that bridging organizations are central players in an increasingly multi-sectoral paradigm and hold a critical role in liaising actors to solve problems that neither would have been able to solve on their own. These organizations can provide an arena for knowledge co-productiontrust buildingsense makingsocial learningverticaland horizontal collaborationand conflict resolution (e.g.Hahn et al.2006; Olsson et al.2007; Berkes2009; Schultz and Lundholm2010; Crona and Parker2012). Furthermorethey can fill technical and financial gaps by linking experts and expertise across levels of societyand by mobilizing ideasresources and leadership.

Inherent in bridging different social actors is often a need to overcome some degree of mistrust. Henceconsensus building and conflict resolution are important features in governancebut can be difficult to establish and maintain (Folke et al.2005). Bridging organizations can facilitate depoliticized arenas that contribute to lowering institutional and cultural barriers between stakeholder groups and aligning their interests (Crona and Parker2012). Kowalski and Jenkins' (2015) case study on the science-policy interface of ocean management showed that bridging organization leadership coordinated collective action and resolved group issues within and among scientific and policy communities. Developing neutral space is advantageous for dealing with the ambiguity of multiple objectivesentrenched conflictsand for navigating power differentials among social actors.

Important contributors to successful conservation often include government and intermediary non-governmental organizations (NGOs)as well as local actors such as community groupscivil society organizationsand customary decision-making bodies. By building linkages to external social actorsbridging organizations help those at the local level to cross geographical and political scales in ways that would have otherwise been difficultif not impossible. Hahn et al. (2006) showed how a bridging organization linked local actors with other levels of governments to generate legalpolitical and financial support in a wetlands landscape in Sweden. Through bridgingcommunities and others are able to gain access to non-local expertise and resourcesincluding technical and financial resourcessources of technologydonorsand alternative trading networks (Folke et al.2005). Such access can enable capacity building for more engaged or empowered involvement in conservation (e.g.Jamal et al.2007).

Howeverthe literature also suggests a need for a more sophisticated understanding of the influence of bridging organizations on social interactions and social networks for governance generally (Crona and Parker2012)and for conservation governance specifically (Berkes2007; Jacobson and Robertson2012). Despite an increased scholarly interest in bridging organizationsfew have empirically addressed their function and implications in conservation contexts (e.g.Hahn et al.2006; Jamal et al.2007; Jacobson and Robertson2012). This investigation builds on our recent work in the regionin which we report that bridging organizations contribute in several ways to positive governance outcomes by nurturing social networks and interactive processes (Berdej and Armitage2016). Herewe seek to further examine their capacity to deal with issues of conservation fit. We also expand the discussion of bridging organizations to assess the different ways through which they developimplementand adapt conservation initiatives to fit a broad range of social dimensions associated with conservation of coastal-marine systems (e.g.cultural contextlocal politicsknowledge systemsmultiplicity of scales and levels).

Materials and methods

Research context and sites

The Coral Triangle (CT) comprises marine waters of IndonesiaPhilippinesMalaysiaPapua New GuineaSolomon Islandsand Timor-Leste. The region is globally regarded for its extraordinary marine biodiversity (Allen2008) and its exceptional importance to local economies and societies (CTI Secretariat2009). As part of efforts to address marine resource declinethe Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral ReefsFisheries and Food Security (CTI-CFF) was established in 2009—a collaboration among the six nations to better manage the region's coastal and marine resources. The CTI-CFF sets out a diverse set of goals for the regionfrom an ecosystem approach to management of fisheries to climate change adaptation. The establishment and effective management of marine protected areas (MPAs) are seen as a key conservation tool in this regardand comprise the CTI-CFF's third goal.

Each of the CT nations has unique ecologicalsocio-cultural and governance arrangements for defining and establishing MPAs and other conservation initiatives. In Indonesiathe Government has committed to establish 20 million hectares (or 6.5% of territorial waters) of marine conservation area by 2020. MPAs here are declared and administered by nationalprovincialand regency or municipal governmentsand take on a number of forms (see White et al.2014). In additionthere are a growing number of community-based conservation areas. Of the 15.7 million hectares of MPAs already designatedhoweverthe majority of MPAs (>85%) offer little to no protection due to budgetary constraintsgovernance weaknesslack of marine management capacityand political will (Burke et al.2012; White et al.2014). As stated abovethese challenges are compounded by a deficit of understanding and incorporation of the social dimensions of conservation (Clifton2009; Foale et al.2013; Fidelman et al.2014; von Heland et al.2014).

Our research focused on three cases across BaliIndonesia (Table 2). Cases were selected based on literature review and consultations with Indonesian partners and other experts using geographic and thematic criteria of relevance (e.g.Indonesiamarineconservationbridgingcoastal-resource managementsharinglearning). Additional details on rationale for selection of bridging organizations can be found in Berdej and Armitage (2016). The use of the term MPA in our cases refers to a type of Indonesian conservation strategy entitled “Kawasan Konservasi Perairan” (literally translated to “aquatic conservation area”)whose definition encompasses both marine and freshwater areas that are managed by a zoning system.

Data collection and analysis

Data was collected over eight-months in 2013–2014with a follow-up visit in January-February 2015. A case study approach (Yin2003) was used and included semi-structured interviews (n = 53 Nusa Penidan = 54 East Bulelengn = 20 Bali MPA Network)participant observation of key meetings (n = 5) and a literature review. Interviewees included individuals from government (n = 17)NGOs (n = 12)resource user groups (n = 19)other community groups (n = 11)traditional bodies (n = 3)private sector businesses (n = 14)universities (n = 1)and other (n = 1). Some of these organizations were affiliated with more than one study site. A combination of snowball sampling and purposive (or judgmental) sampling methods (Hay 2010) were used to identify participants. Snowball sampling is a technique whereby the current participant nominates subsequent participants (Hay2010). The approach is helpful to identify “hidden populations” or key individuals that might have otherwise not been known. Purposive sampling occurs where the researcher purposefully identifies individuals from the population based on her/his own knowledge and judgment.

Themes covered in interviews included basic organization detailsaffiliations and relationshipsconservation management and implementation processesinteractions and perceptions of bridging organizationsand constraints and barriers. Interviews were conducted face-to-face in English or Bahasa Indonesia with the aid of a local research assistant. The majority of interviews were recorded by handwritten notesgiven that a digital voice recorder was deemed inappropriate to the context. Key public meetings were observed related to each of the cases on the topics of marine planning and MPA socialization. A literature review was conducted to complement and validate data collectedand focused on thematic areas stated above. Documents included annual reportspolicy briefscopies of presentations and newspaper articles.

Data analysis was framed around the three conservation fit categories outlined in the previous section (Table 1). These categories were developed from a review of relevant literature on fit theoryand using applicable cases and lessons-learned from across the CT. Analysis of qualitative data from the field (including interviewsparticipant observation and some document collection) was carried out using an inductive approach to provide insights into emerging patterns of strategies used by bridging organizations. These findings were sorted and groupedand then linked to one of the three conservation fit categories. We acknowledge that the use of pre-defined categories may overlook or restrict other themes. To counter thiswe intentionally chose broad categories to allow for findings to emerge as unrestrained as possible from the raw datawhile also linking them to the theoretical base driving the research.

This research was carried out with approval from the Office of Research Ethics at the University of Waterloo (Ethics Approval Number 17930). All participants gave verbal consent prior to conducting interviews. An information sheet explaining the purpose of the research and how data would be used was read and/or translated verbally to participants. Participants were made aware of their right to withdraw participation from research at any time.

Case studies

We introduce three cases below that are illustrative of the diverse ways bridging organizations can influence conservation fit in Bali. This section is organized by caseas opposed to fit categoryto give the reader a more holistic understanding of the conservation setting and of how bridging organizations are situated therein. Each sub-section briefly outlines the contextfollowed by an introduction of the bridging organization or organizationsand an overview of their roles and responsibilities. Results are synthesized according to each of the fit categories of our framework in the section that follows.

Toward a bali MPA network—crossing scalescrossing boundaries

Context

The province of Bali is located in the westernmost end of the Lesser Sunda Islandscovers almost 565,000 hectaresand comprises the main island of Bali and a series of satellite islands. High marine biodiversity is documented in the area (Mustika et al.2012)and important habitats include coral reefsmangrove forests and seagrass beds. There are over four million people in the provincespread across eight administrative regencies and the capital city of Denpasar. Coastal and marine resources are a cornerstone of Bali's economies and societiessupporting livelihoods such as fisheriesornamental fish collectionmariculture (e.g.shrimpfishseaweed) and a burgeoning marine tourism industry.

Partial decentralizationas mentioned earlierhas led to fit challenges associated with poor coordination between levels of governmentpolicy inconsistenciesand non-conformities in the licensingpolicing and use of coastal-marine resources between regencies (see Patlis2005). The inequitable distribution of assets and access to these resources has fueled ongoing conflicts between villagesbetween regenciesand between sectors. Togetherthese have hindered efforts to address pressures from overfishing and destructive fishing practicesmarine litter and nutrient run-offand the rapid development of coastal areas and watersheds (Mustika et al.2012). In this contextthe environmental NGO Conservation International Indonesia has emerged as a key player in the movement toward coordinatedcross-scale conservation practice.

Conservation international indonesia (CI-I)

Since 2010Conservation International Indonesia has been a driver behind the development of a Bali MPA Network (hereafter “Network”; Indonesian: Jejaring Kawasan Konservasi Perairan). CI-I has been active in Indonesian seascapes in general since 2004 with a mission of “building upon a strong foundation of sciencepartnership and field demonstration[to empower] societies to responsibly and sustainably care for natureour global biodiversityfor the well-being of humanity” [CI-I (Conservation International Indonesia)2015: website]. In Bali it has taken on a number of roles and responsibilitiesincluding: biological monitoring to inform Network design; identification and engagement of partners; coordination of activities related to Network planning; and facilitated development of a management planning document (hereafter “Blueprint”).

To initiate planning for the NetworkCI-I and its partners facilitated a multi-stakeholder workshop in 2010 and together identified 25 sites across Bali for possible inclusion. Site selection was informed by some 66 representatives from governmentuniversitiesNGOsprivate sectorand community and traditional leaders in attendance from across the province. Marine Rapid Assessments were then carried out by CI-I in each of the proposed sites with data collected about marine biodiversitycoral reef community structureand current condition of coral reefs and related ecosystems (see Mustika et al.2012). This was combined with earlier assessments (Allen and Erdman2008) and used to inform the evolving design of the Network. Included was the recommendation of nine of the 25 sites for priority as MPAs due to their high ecologicaleconomic and cultural value.

The Network was formally initiated in 2013 through a memorandum of understanding signed by all ten heads of marine affairs and fisheries agencies in Bali—comprising nine regency agencies and one provincial agency. Its overall visions is “the creation of harmony and synergy between nationalprovincial and regency governments in Bali in the management of aquatic resourceswith strong support and participation of the community and other institutionsand for the sustainable enhancement of socialeconomic and cultural benefits” (Gunawan and Dewantama2014p. 7 translated). In practicethe Network is intended to foster cross-boundary coordination to synergistically align all aquatic-related efforts of regencies with the provincewhile at the same timerespecting the autonomous rights of regencies to manage programs in their territorial waters (CI-I staffpersonal communication 2014).

A multi-stakeholdermulti-agency task force was established for Network planningcomprising 28 representatives from provincial and regency government (including tourismenvironmentplanningand marine and fisheries agencies)existing parks and reservestraditional councilsand NGOs (see Bali Gov. Decree2013). The task force is chaired by the head of the Bali Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheriesand network members have described the role of CI-I as project lead and coordinator. Other groups such as local governments and civil society organizations are not members of the Task Force. Howeverthey are expected to contribute to individual working groups on policy-makingspatial planningand funding as part of the ongoing planning process (which has yet to begin; see Gunawan and Dewantama2014).

The MPA Network is based on the principle of “One IslandOne Management” through which Bali is viewed as a singular ecosystem comprised of terrestrialmarine and aerial space that requires integratedcross-scale management to deal with conservation challenges. This has been described as a “…need to manage as an island instead of eight or nine separate entities within the island…[where regencies] have to sit down together to talk about general issues and the environment” (anonymous personal communication 2014). Objectives are set for ecological and social connectivity to “…braid cooperation between MPA mangers in Bali for more effectiveefficientcomprehensive and sustainable management and conservation” (Gunawan and Dewantama2014p. 21 translated). This is a means for actors to share their experienceslessons learned and capacities.

Three pillars inform the ideology the Network—scientific evidencerule of lawand culture. A series of Balinese “local wisdoms” have been adoptedincluding: “Nyegara Gunung” (translates to “ridge to reef” that signify the integration of mountains and sea)“Tri Hita Karana” (a philosophy on sustainability emphasizing interrelation and harmony of humanGod and nature)and “Sad Kerti” (six strategies to maintain the balance of nature that are comprised of soulhumanforestlake or fresh watersea and the universe). In practicethis translates to a fixed inclusion of local and cultural valuesas well as cultural seascapesin the design and implementation of MPAs. The inclusion of Balinese wisdoms is also intended to uniformly strengthen the “cultural sovereignty of Balinese in conservation” (CI-I staffpersonal communication 2014).

To support coordination and operation of the Networka Blueprint document was created to provide consistency in approaches and laws in the planning of aquatic areas across Balias well as in setting minimum standards of compliance. These guidelines are to serve in part as reference in developing protected areas (marine or terrestrial) at the level of regencyand include ecologicalsocio-economic and governance considerations (see Gunawan and Dewantama2014).

Stillthere are numerous challenges facing the actualization of the Bali MPA Network. Cooperation from governments and stakeholders remains problematic given conflicting interestshigh turnover of government staff that inhibits relationship-buildingand a general lack of trust between groups. An NGO representative was careful to make the distinction between those organizations or agencies in the MPA Network that were “happy” to be included but rarely participateand those who were “enthusiastic” in moving the process forward by actively participating (local NGO rep.personal communication 2014). Many regencies still do not have dedicated staffnor sufficient budgetfor MPA planning and implementation. In additionconcern has also been raised about the possibility of conflict where the “One IslandOne Management” idea could be interpreted by some as an attempt by the province to regain power over coastal-marine decision-making (national NGO rep.personal communication 2014).

Nusa penida MPA—pluralism and multiple-use in conservation

Context

The Nusa Penida MPA is located southeast of the Balinese coast comprising three islands: LembonganCeninganand Penida. Its 46,000 inhabitants are distributed across 16 administrative and 46 customary village divisions. Major livelihood activities include capture fisheries (≈850 local fishers in 40 fishers' associations)seaweed production (≈308 ha of farms)and marine tourism (over 200,000 tourists per year; Ruchimat et al.2013). The area is well known among divers for its large charismatic species such as the ocean sunfish (Mola mola) and manta ray (Manta birostris).

Nusa Penida is part of the Klungkung RegencyBali Province. In addition to regency and village administrative lawsthere is customary law implemented by local traditional bodies (Indonesian: Adat) and a Tribes' Council (Indonesian: Majelis Alit). This law is focused on religious and cultural activitybut can also include rules and sanctions associated with natural resources. In Lembonganfor examplecustomary law forbids logging of mangroves or collection of sea sand. Other regulatory bodies on the islands include a newly formed consortium of diving businessesand separate fishers' and seaweed farmers' associations through which activities are regulated socially.

Intensive utilization of coastal resources and overlapping or competing income-generating activities in a relatively small region such as the one presented herehas posed challenges to fitand contributed to many ecosystems becoming overexploited (see Welly2009). These too have fueled conflicts between various user groups (e.g.tourism and fisherstourism and seaweed farmers). Here an NGO bridging organization has taken on the central role of facilitating the region's many stakeholders and uses in creating and managing the MPA.

The coral triangle center (CTC)

The Coral Triangle Centeran Indonesian environmental NGO focused on capacity buildinghas been the lead facilitator of the Nusa Penida MPA since it was initiated in 2008. At the timeCTC was a subsidiary of the US-based NGO The Nature Conservancybut became an independent foundation in 2010 and now operates in multiple sites across Indonesia. A key objective of CTC is to “…stimulate partnerships with leaders in sectors such as tourismfisheriesagricultureand business developmentrecognizing that holistic and inclusive approaches are necessary for the sustainability of coastal ecoregions and health and economy of local communities” [CTC (Coral Triangle Center)2011p. 2]. The major roles of CTC in the MPA include: identification and engagement of local partners; collection of stakeholder inputs and data to inform MPA design; coordination of activities related to MPA planning; and technical advisory and training.

Preceding the declaration of the MPACTC coordinated a series of 33 public consultations to gather input and mutual agreement on MPA establishment—some 1200 individuals from 16 villages participated between 2009 and 2010 (CTC staffpersonal communication 2014). This information would later inform MPA design. In 2010the Nusa Penida MPA was officially declared by decree of the Head of the Klungkung Regency Government (decree no.12/2010). In an effort to better align benefits to local stakeholders with marine conservationthree objectives were established: (1) biodiversity protection(2) sustainability of fisheriesand (3) sustainability of marine tourism. A multi-agencymulti-stakeholder working group was created and tasked with disseminating information and undertaking preparations for the MPA.

The MPA design process was informed by scientific data (biological assessments and socioeconomic surveys)policy assessments of law and regulationand stakeholders' input. To be inclusive of the many stakeholder groupsand their interests and knowledgeCTC conducted an additional 30 public stakeholder meetings at the village and regency levels about boundaries and zoning preferences. According to CTC staffone of its major roles is to “bring people together” (CTC staffpersonal communication 2013)—it engaged and included stakeholders from regency (Klungkung Regency) and central governmentsNGOscommunity groupstourism operatorstraditional leadersteachersyouth groupsand local fishers' and seaweed farmers' associations.

The resulting MPA zoning system consists of four maritime zones and a series sub-zones: (1) core zone for education and research purposes (469 ha)(2) sustainable fisheries zone—including traditional fisheries sub-zone (16,916 ha)temporally controlled special use sub-zone (905 ha) (see below)and seaweed farming sub-zone (464 ha)(3) utilization zone—including marine tourism sub-zone (1221 ha) and marine harbor sub-zone (35 ha)and (4) other zone—including traditional sacred sub-zone (47 ha). This zoning system integrates utilization activities and cultural perspectives alongside biodiversity conservationand in balance.

To ensure impacts on local fishers were minimizedsome 80% of MPA waters remain accessible either as prioritized fishing grounds or in multiple use zones. Existing seaweed-farming territories on each island were allocated their own zones. A desire to protect and integrate Balinese culture into planning led to the creation of a “traditional sacred zone,” which limits speedboat and tourist access in waters located adjacent to an important temple on the coast. To minimize conflicts between fishers and marine tourism operators in a number of areas along the north coasts of Nusa Penida and Nusa Lembongan“special use zones” were created to allow temporally controlled access. Between the hours of 4 p.m. and 9 a.m. fishing is permitted in these areashoweveroutside of these hours only marine tourism activities are permitted.

A pluralist management unit comprised of representatives from various actor groups was formalized in 2013 to allow for representative decision-makingand is supported by a joint patrol teamand biophysical and socioeconomic monitoring teams facilitated by CTC. Team representatives include those from regency governmenttraditional village policefishers' associationsthe Indonesian Navythe Indonesian Police Unitlocal dive operatorsthe Tribe's Counciland associated NGOs and community groups. Joint patrols and monitoring are conducted monthly. In additionCTC coordinates annual reef health monitoring surveys in 12 sites across the islands together with the Management Unit and local partnersand conducts community perception and engagement surveys every two years. These activities are meant to both build skills and capacity for local stewardship (via training and certification of locals by CTC)as well as foster learning that feeds back into the ongoing development of the MPA.

In addition to the aforementioned bodiesthe process of MPA development has helped to connect several new social networks within different interests in Nusa Penida. For examplean association of local dive operators was founded to link businesses and self-regulate dive tourism practices through agreed codes of conduct. Likewisea mangrove tourism association to connect local fishers arose out of CTC-led efforts to develop community-managed mangrove ecotourism. In additiona memorandum of understanding was recently signed with the management unit of Nusa Penida MPA to enable CTC to use the area as an “MPA Learning Site” and living laboratory for learning exchanges and training visits among practitioners and sites across the CT region.

Howeverthe MPA faces a number of new and ongoing challenges moving forward. Unsurprisinglybuilding stakeholder relationships is a work-in-progress. Some respondents made note of ongoing tensions between and within groupsparticularly between on- and off-island fishers or tourism operatorsand between snorkeler and dive operators. Both cultural and language barriers persist between some stakeholder groups. Concern has also been raised about the burgeoning tourism industry and the ability to regulate and enforce tourist carrying capacities on reefs given the number of informal and off-island operators.

East buleleng marine conservation zone—scaling-up empowered community conservation

Context

The Marine Conservation Zone resides along 26 km of coastline located in northeastern Bali. This is the province's richest area for fish diversity (Mustika et al.2012) and includes important habitat for marine life such as whale sharkssea turtles and dolphins. Its 54,000 inhabitants are distributed across ten administrative and 60 customary village divisions that comprise the Tejakula sub-district. Coastal communities rely on fisheries (≈2000 local fishers in 47 fishers' associations)the marine aquarium tradeaquaculture (shrimpfishseaweed) and tourism to meet subsistence and livelihood needs [DKP (Dinas Periknanan and KelautanPemerintah Kabupaten Buleleng)2015]. According to the head of the ornamental fishers association and NGO field staffthere are less than 100 ornamental fishers in the sub-district.

Tejakula is part of the Buleleng RegencyBali Province. Similar to Nusa Penidacoastal-marine regulations here stem from regency and village administrative lawsas well as customary law. Other regulatory bodies include fishers' and ornamental fishers' associationsand community groups responsible for Locally Managed Marine Areas (LMMAs) (Indonesian: Daerah Perlindungan Laut). Major challenges to fit here include intra- and inter-community tensions associated with overlapping use and access. For examplethe ongoing development of beachfront hotels has meant increasing exclusion of fishers and ornamental fishers from marine spaces. Local people are highly dependent on coastal-marine systems and livelihood alternatives are limited. In additioncapacity to combat environmental threats such as coral mining and pollutionas well as destructive and illegal fishing practicesis limited. Two environmental NGOs have played centralbut differingroles in supporting a transition toward community empowered conservation practice in this region: Reef Check Indonesia and the Indonesian Nature Foundation.

Reef check indonesia (RC-I)

Reef Check Indonesiaa chapter of a US-based environmental NGO of the same namehas been active in the Buleleng region since 2006. The NGO embodies a philosophy of “integrated coastal and marine ecosystem management to enhance the welfare of coastal communities” [RC-I (Reef Check Indonesia)2015: website] and was founded on three pillars of activity: science and technologycollaborative managementand education and awareness. Their main office is located in south Balibut at the time of data collection a member of RC-I staff was also housed semi-permanently in the office of the Ministry of Marine Affairs and FisheriesBuleleng. RC-I has taken on a number of roles in the regionincluding: support of LMMA planning; facilitation of traditional guards; community capacity building and training; and coordination of MPA design and development.

Between 2008 and 2009RC-I worked together with community members and local governments in developing a series of LMMAs in villages across the sub-districtwith the aim to curb illegal activities and promote sustainable resource use. LMMA zoning was guided by a mix of local knowledge and scientific data collected by RC-I on coral reef health. According to staffthis involved “sharing sessions” held with different organizations—such as fishers' associationstraditional authoritiescommunity groupslocal NGOs and tourism operators—to better understand and integrate their interests in conservation solutions that “accommodate collective importance” (RC-I staffpersonal communication 2014). Zoning was undertaken on a village-by-village basis and includes categories for: core zones where extraction activities are prohibitedbuffer zones where limited fishing is permittedand utilization zones where non-destructive activities are permitted.

As well as establishing LMMAscommunity-based organizations were created for eachand take on the majority of responsibility to implementmanage and monitor these spaces. The head of one such organization described its purpose as helping to create a more sustainable marine environmentwhile at the same time educating their community and improving community welfare (LMMA rep.personal communication 2014). In this contextRC-I has directed effort to building local capacity—it conducts training on practice and theory of marine ecology and conservationdiving skills (general and scientific)and ecological monitoring techniques (snorkeling and diving). Local fishers are taught and certified to identify and record the health of their coral reefs and fisheriesand have been actively collecting data both independently and alongside RC-I over the last 5 years (LMMA rep.personal communication 2014). Dive training has served the dual purpose of conservation and ecotourism: several LMMA organizations are also tourism dive centers.

RC-I has sought to strengthen local stewardship by inaugurating certified diver fishers into community groups called “Pecalang Segara” or “traditional guardians of the sea.” The marine-based Pecalang are an extension of the terrestrial-based traditional body (i.e.Adat). Following trainingthey are tasked with undertaking surveillance and enforcement of regulations in LMMAs. According to the head of an LMMA organizationthe enacting of Pecalang strengthens the community's “cultural responsibility” to protect the environment (LMMA rep.personal communication 2014).

In 2011RC-I partnered with the Ministry of Marine Affairs and FisheriesBuleleng to facilitate the designation of the East Buleleng Marine Conservation Zonepart of a regency-level MPA that would include the already-established LMMAs. The process of scaling-up began in 2013 through a series of public consultations at the village and sub-district levels to gather input and mutual agreement on MPA zonesboundariesand allowable activities. In attendance were members from fishers' and ornamental fishers' associationshotels and spasgovernmentlocal NGOscommunity associations and others. A regency government official explained that MPA zones are meant to align with those in existing LMMAs so that one would strengthen the other (government rep.personal communication 2014).

At the time of data collectionsubstantial progress had been made in zoningbut finalization had yet to take place. The zoning system will include four categories: (1) core zone—for protection of ecosystemstraditional cultural sitesand research and education; (2) limited use zone—for tourism and recreational activitiesas well as research and education; (3) sustainable fisheries zone—for non-destructive catch and cultivation of fishtourism and recreational activitiesas well as research and education; and (4) other zone—for specific purposes such as port harborsrehabilitation of specific marine biota or traditional territories. Similar to the Nusa Penida MPAthis zoning system is meant to balance utilization activities and cultural perspectives alongside objectives for biodiversity conservation.

Howeverthe creation of LMMAs and subsequent MPA has not been embraced or accepted by all. Numerous fishers and ornamental fishers voiced discontent about their exclusion or the extent of their exclusion from coastal areas. There is also persistent belief among some community members that the word “conservation” implies absolutely no use activities permitted. One business owner explained that it will be difficult for some fishermen to see the benefit of the MPA because they tend to think short termand MPA benefits will be a long-term gain (business ownerpersonal communication 2014).

The indonesian nature foundation (LINI)

The Indonesian Nature Foundation has been active in the Buleleng Regency since 2008with many of its staff having operated in the Regency since 2000. LINI is an NGO from south Bali with a mission to “…work with marginalized coastal communities to reverse the degradation of Indonesian coral reefs and raise awareness about responsible and sustainable marine resource use” [LINI (The Indonesian Nature Foundation)2015: website]. It works most closely at the community levelparticularly with the villages of Les and Penuktukanto foster a sustainable marine ornamental fishery as part of wider conservation efforts. LINI subscribes to the idea that “…you cannot force people to protect the environment[rather]you have to start by helping them with livelihoods and understanding (education)” (LINI staffpersonal communication 2013). In this respectit has taken on a number of rolesincluding: community capacity building and skills training on reef restoration and ornamental fishery; biological and socioeconomic data collection; identification and engagement of local partners and partnerships.

LINI has been a leader in building capacity for community-driven coral reef restoration. It trains local fishers in the production and installation of various types of artificial reef structuresincluding fish domesshrimp podsand “roti buaya” (rough logs of artificial substrate). These are madedeployed and occasionally designed by villagers themselves. With help from LINIfishers from Les village have taken on stewardship of reef restoration in the area since 2010. As of January 2014over 100 fish domes and 1000 shrimp pods had been installed on the reef in multiple sites in East Buleleng (ornamental fisherpersonal communication 2014). These structures serve the dual purpose of encouraging coral re-growthand providing nurseries for the marine aquarium trade to fuel local livelihoods.

Alongside reef restoration activitiesLINI has sought to foster human and institutional capacity in coastal communities for a sustainable ornamental fisheryincluding sea and land-based aquaculture development. The gathering of ornamental fish has a rich history in the regionbut it has tended to come with destructive practices such as cyanide use (e.g.Frey and Berkes2014). LINI delivers practical skills training about e.g.marine conservationfish collection methodspost-harvest handling techniquesfish rearing and maricultureand diving (general and scientific). It has assisted in the development of an ornamental fish export business by community fishersincluding the building of land facilities for a fish rearing program (ornamental fisherpersonal communication 2014). Construction has recently been completed on a new Aquaculture and Training Centre in Les village designed to offer skills trainingresearch and work experience in marine conservation and aquaculture.

In additionLINI plays an important role in collecting and distributing information across scales. It has described itself as “…a big knowledge huband a trafficker of information” (LINI staffpersonal communication 2014). The NGO has established and maintained an extensive database on ornamental fish harvestsfisheries catchessupply chainsand aquaculture data from the village to regional scales. As wellit has been monitoring the progress of reef restoration by recording numbers and species of fish. This information is collected by LINI staffcommunity membersor with other NGOs such as RC-I. LINI works with regency government on the use of such data to inform fisheries quotas in the region.

Howeverdespite strides in the advancement of a sustainable ornamental fisherysome concerns have been raised about its long-term viability in the region. An ornamental fisher explained that many stakeholders in the area—including some local authorities and tourism operators—continue to be suspicious of the activities of ornamental fishers (ornamental fisherpersonal communication 2014). It has an unfavorable imagehe explainedeven though methods have changed significantly. In additionthere are far fewer ornamental fishers than pelagic fishers andsubsequentlytheir position in the region may not be as strong.

Results: contributions of bridging organization to conservation fit

Results are organized here according to the three main categories of conservation fit outlined in our framework earlier in the paper. These include: (1) aligning conservation initiatives with characteristics of the social context (e.g.institutionsculturevalueslocal practice)(2) facilitating governance processes and instruments to bring together and meaningfully engage actors to pursue coordinated and adaptive conservationand (3) effectively linking conservation initiatives and social actors across scales and levels. We identify and discuss in detail the strategies used by bridging organizations to promote and sustain aspects of conservation fitwhich are summarized in Table 3. To this endwe draw on specific examples and evidence (e.g.from interviewsdocument review) from the cases aboveas well as surveyed responses from participants about bridging organization contributions (Table 4). As illustrated belowhowevernot every strategy was employed in every case or to the same degree.

Table 4

Conservation International Indonesia	Coral Triangle Center	Reef Check Indonesia	Indonesian Nature Foundation
Facilitating collaboration (82%)	Facilitating collaboration (61%)	Capacity building and training (67%)	Capacity building and training (74%)
Knowledge building & learning (47%)	Knowledge building and learning (57%)	Knowledge building & learning (54%)	Facilitating collaboration (68%)
Other(c) (47%)	Education and awareness (53%)	Facilitating collaboration (42%)	Knowledge building and learning (58%)
Capacity building and training (23%)	Conflict resolution (32%)	Conflict resolution (33%)	Education and awareness (53%)
	Other(c) (32%)	Education and awareness (33%)

Responses for top contributions of bridging organization to marine conservation and management processes by case^(a)(b).

(a)

Respondents were asked“how does [X] bridging organization contribute to marine conservation and management processes in the [region/initiative]?”

(b)

The initial categories included here were further refined and consolidated in line with the main themes in Table 1.

(c)

The “other” category included contributions listed such as fundingadministrative taskstechnical facilitationcreating new rulesproviding checks and balancesand supplying data.

Alignment with social context

Integrating actors and interests

Bridging organizations help to identify and represent multiple social actors and their various and often divergent interests. It is widely acknowledged that the long-term success of a conservation intervention hinges in part on its integration with (local) peopleand by association of their needs for livelihood and wellbeing (see Ferse et al.2010; Glaser et al.2015). Our cases in Nusa Penida and East Buleleng show how bridging organizations use public meetingscommunity consultationsand focus group discussions to identify and elicit information about the interests and resource use patterns of affected stakeholder groups. To accommodate this heterogeneity in conservation initiativeswe observed that bridging organizations exercised flexibility in design and implementation.

Indeedall bridging organizations examined in this paper showed some degree of flexibility in their integration of multiple alternative objectives. In East Bulelengfor examplea process of multi-use zoning was used in order to represent and integrate the different interests of social actors related to biodiversity protectionsustainable fisheriesornamental fisheriesmarine tourism and culture. A community member here explained,

I don't want to do just conservation. I want conservation for all—for peoplefor culture. There needs to be balanced conservation that includes naturebut also people and their needstheir culturetheir recreationand their economic status. There needs to be a balance between nature conservation and social conservation. (community memberpersonal communication 2014)

The CTC similarly orchestrated multi-use spatial and temporal zoning in Nusa Penida to resolve overlapping objectives between fishersseaweed farmers and marine tourism activities. Other strategiessuch as the utilitarian approach applied by LINIexplicitly identified synergies between social and ecological objectives. A representative of LINI stated,

Absolutely “no-take” areas are problematic. They are not feasible according to the Balinese way of living. That would mean no fisheriesno tourism. […] In Indonesiapeople have the philosophy that “nature is there for us to use.” Conservation must consider this. (LINI staffpersonal communication 2014)

These actions are in line with calls from across the CT for greater flexibility in conservationwhere solutions seek to balance the immediate needs of resource users with conservation or long-term sustainability agendas (see Foale et al.2013; von Heland et al.2014; Weeks et al.2014a).

Knowledge diversity

Bridging organizations help to integrate knowledge systems and perspectives from different social spheres. Scholars advocate drawing fromand combiningmultiple types of knowledge to better understand the conservation context and problem (e.g.Majors2008; Clifton and Majors2012). A representative from RC-I described this process as finding the “right mix of science and culture” for conservation initiatives (RC-I staffpersonal communication 2013). Another interviewee commented on the inseparability of the two: “when we talk about Baliyou cannot avoid the culture…once you talk about marineyou talk about terrestrialyou talk about the peopleabout culture” (CI-I staffpersonal communication 2014). The incorporation of scientific and technical knowledge in our cases was achieved where bridging organizations connected to universitieslocal research institutesNGO scientistsand/or managers. Each bridging organization also included its own research-oriented activities to collect scientific data: CI-I undertook marine rapid assessmentsCTC carried out biophysical and socioeconomic baseline surveysand RC-I and LINI collected data on the state of coral reef health and fisheries.

The incorporation of local and traditional knowledge in our cases was achieved where bridging organizations involved the expertise of those with long-standing ties to the area—community memberstraditional leadersresource usersteachersetc. For examplethe experience-based knowledge of ornamental fishers in East Buleleng has been used to guide the installation of some artificial reef structuresand traditional custom (i.e.Adat) has been incorporated and reinforced in MPA planning in Nusa Penida through the creation of a sacred zone. Likewise“local wisdoms” such as “Tri Hita Karana” and “Nyegara Gunung” have been integrated into the Bali MPA Network so as to merge scientific ideas of conservation (e.g.ecological connectivitysocial networks) with the Balinese cultural perspective (e.g.“ridge to reef” thinkingharmony between human and nature). A government official added“If BMN (Bali MPA Network) is applied with awig-awig (customary law)it will work very strongly because most Balinese think of the ocean and beach as sacred place” (government rep.personal communication 2014: translated).

Facilitating appropriate governance

Hybrids and inclusiveness

Bridging organizations help actualize hybrid forms of decision-making that combine different sets of publicprivate and civil society actors. Hybrid approaches reflect recognition that many coastal-marine resources are too complex to be governed by a single social actor or agency (Berkes2009). One interviewee commented“we cannot do conservation alone. It requires a long process of negotiation and compromise between many groups of stakeholders” (government rep.personal communication 2014). One way bridging organizations in our cases pursued inclusiveness was to support co-governance arrangementsconsisting of collaboration and interplay between diverse representatives from across sectors and scales. In Nusa Penida this took the form of a multi-stakeholdermulti-agency working group (now management unit)and in the Bali MPA Network this was expressed as a 28 member joint Task Force. Hybridizing was also pursued in merging local institutions as part of governance frameworks. In East Bulelengfor exampleRC-I helped integrate aspects of customary institutions (i.e.Adat) with conservation governance by extending and incorporating the Pecalang Segara as traditional territorial authorities in LMMAs. This was similarly carried out in the Nusa Penida MPA.

A general consensus is that broadening meaningful participationespecially of local communitiesis indispensable for the success of marine conservation in the CT and beyond (Christie et al.2003; Mascia2003; Clifton2009; Ferse et al.2010; Glaser et al.2015). In expressing greater inclusiona community member in Nusa Penida stated“…CTC provides a link between government and [us]. They give us a voice” (community rep.personal communication 2014). Opportunities for stakeholder inclusion and input facilitated by bridging organizations in our cases ranged from participatory mapping of resource usepublic meetings and focus group discussions on zoningto membership on monitoring teamspatrol unitsand joint committees. In practicesuch opportunities become venues for discussion and debatecoordinationsharing informationmobilizing resourcesand organizing training activities.

Capacity building

Bridging organizations aid in building requisite knowledgeskills and capacity for conservation practice and governanceespecially where sub-national or local governments lack the capacity (or desire) to fill gaps. Methods observed to foster (local) capacity and leadership ranged from formal to informal. Capacity building activities undertaken by RC-I in East Bulelengfor examplehave enabled LMMA managers to actively participate and assume increasing responsibility for planningimplementationecological monitoringand enforcement in their coastal-marine areas. The NGO described an aim of its activities to “…broaden the roles of community members from fishers to tourism operators and reef protectors” (RC-I staffpersonal communication 2014). Enlisting resource users in data collection and analysis educates participantsbuilds capacity and can foster trust (Mascia2003).

Likewise in Nusa Penidajoint patrol and monitoring teams now perform the tasks of enforcement and data collection following facilitation and training by CTC. In describing their interactionsa representative from a local community organization stated,

CTC has provided training to us and have built our capacity to make collaborations and strengthen management. […] We now serve as a facilitator for the socialization and communication of the MPA and work with various stakeholders about conservation issues in the context of the MPA. (community organization rep.personal communication 2014)

Some bridging organizations also advocated local leadersand not just involvementin conservation governance. An NGO member expressed the importance of fostering “local champions” to facilitate on-the-group relationships and build stewardship over conservation initiatives (international NGO rep.personal communication 2014). Attempts to decentralize leadership included those where bridging organizations sought to empower locally based organizations (as in the case of LMMAs) and where initiatives were managed and implemented by community members (as in the case of reef restoration). As wellthe embedding of key community or traditional leaders in conservation planning and implementation teamssuch as working groupsmanagement units or patrol teamsstrengthens the overall involvement and conservation leadership of community members.

Alignment of scales

Connectivity

As entities that connect othersbridging organizations convene a diversity of social actors to create and hold together scale-bridging social networks for conservation. Social networks are important to embrace diversity of perspectives and knowledge representing multiple social actors across seascapes to facilitate adaptive thinking (cf. Folke et al.2005; Armitage et al.2009). Through bridging effortshorizontal linkages have been cultivated acrossfor exampleregency government agencies (as in the case of CI-I) and community groups (as in the case of the CTC). Vertical linkages meanwhile have been fostered betweenfor examplecommunities and governments (as in the case RC-I and CTC)and between resource use associations and market actors (as in the case of LINI). Bridging organizations were also the catalyst for the formation of sub-networks of stakeholders focused on particular issues such as dive tourism and mangrove ecotourism in Nusa Penida MPA.

Some bridging organizations in our cases have worked collaboratively in the region for upwards of a decade strengthening connectivity between social actors. This is an important pre-condition for coordinationcommunicationand learning in conservation across the CT (see Lowry et al.2009; Cohen et al.2012; Pietri et al.2015). For examplethe CTC connects Nusa Penida MPA to a wider “learning network” of MPAswhich allows managers and practitioners to share knowledge and experiences between sites in the CT and beyond. Similarlyunder the guidance of CI-Ia key function of the Bali MPA Network is to connect MPA managers across the province to enable the exchange of experiences and knowledge:

There are manymany NGOs and other organizations that work in Baliand have not always coordinated. […] The Bali MPA Network is good to share lessons. It serves as an umbrella for multiple organizations to collaborate and connect…it is about sharing knowledge. (national NGO rep.personal communication 2014)

Coordination with other stakeholders is difficult because each stakeholder has their own interestand sometimes this leads to conflicts. BMN (Bali MPA Network) will support information exchange between each regency's DKP (Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries)and conflicts caused by misunderstandings or lack of information could be reduced. (provincial government rep.personal communication 2014)

Scaling

Bridging organizations help foster cooperation to appropriately scale conservation initiatives across geographic and governance boundaries. As urged elsewhere in the CT (Lowry et al.2009; Green et al.2011)bottom-up as well as top-down conservation ingenuity is needed. This is shown in the Bali MPA Networkwhere transboundary conservation is planned to foster coordination across provincialregency and city units of governanceas well as across sector boundaries (tourismenvironmentplanningfisheries). In explaining the challengeone interviewee stated,

Administrative separation by regency has causes differences in managerial decisions and policies between regencies. Bali is a small islandtherefore the marine area around Bali is ecologically connected […]. This means regency management will not work without synchronization with other regencies. This is where BMN (Bali MPA Network) is needed to unite marine management systems in Bali. (NGO rep.personal communication 2014)

Hereprovincial-level prescriptions are a starting point to identify spatial priorities and provide guidelines for the process of MPA design and implementationwhich can be scaled-down and adjusted to accommodate local context and opportunities. Alternativelyunder the guidance of RC-ILMMAs in East Buleleng are being scaled-up and reinforced by higher-level governance units through the development of a regency-level MPA. Aligning conservation initiatives with the regency unit of governance was needed to enforce and implement rules that are beyond the reach of community sanctionsand to resolve inconsistencies and conflicts between LMMAs.

Discussion: observations on bridging and strengthening conservation fit

The cases presented in this paper illustrate that bridging organizations can and do promote and sustain aspects of better conservation fitalthough with some limitations. In this regardconservation fit is a means to an endnot an end to itself. By enacting bridging strategies that integrate actors and interests using flexible approachesactualize hybrid forms of decision-makingbuild capacity and leadershipand foster cross-scale conservation and scale-bridging social networksbridging organizations are indeed successfully enhancing aspects of conservation fit. The outputs of these efforts include conservation initiatives that are better aligned with their social contextswhich bring together and empower various publicprivate and civil society actorsand which better connect people and actions across scales and levels in ways that are locally beneficial.

Our findings show that not all bridging organizations made use of the same bridging strategies or did so to the same degree. In partthis is because bridging organizations and the conservation fit issues they seek to address vary with context. Most bridging organizations have distinct identitiespriorities and strengths or weaknesses that undoubtedly come into play (see Berdej and Armitage2016). This implies that different bridging organizations may have different niches with regards to addressing conservation fit issues. Simultaneouslyissues of fit can vary by strengthcomplexityurgency and/or scale. Recognizing this variation is important to understand how different bridging organizations can be engaged in different ways to address particular conservation misfits.

We observed that bridging organizations share a number of unique features that make them well poised to grapple with conservation fit issues. Firstthe organizations we studied are able to work across the political or jurisdictionalprogrammatic and scalar boundaries that tend to serve as organizational barriers to collaboration and information sharing elsewhere. Secondthe bridging organizations examined here are positioned at the intersection of diverse actorsand so they are able to draw on broader collections of partners—and their expertiseknowledge and resources—to work together in overcoming barriers and finding common ground. Thirdthese organizations embody a high degree of organizational flexibilitymeaning they tend not to be under the same kind of bureaucratic restrictions or silos as government actors. This allows them to be more nimble in responding to emerging issuesshift programming according to needsand alter their roles to suit current challenges.

Our cases have also brought to light a number of new and ongoing constraints or barriers that indicate the challenges in achieving conservation fit. Social systems in the CT are invariably dynamic and heterogeneouscomprising multiple sub-groups with differing valuesinterests and priorities that can change and shift over time (see Fidelman et al.20122014). Bridging strategies that are successful in one place and time and with one set of stakeholders may not be successful elsewhere. By the same tokena bridging organization is subject to competing demands of various stakeholdersnot all of whom have equal ability to voice concerns or exert influence. A major obstacle to fit then is overcoming power asymmetries (see also Clement2013). In Balifor exampletourism is a main source of the province's revenuecreating imbalances with other sector interests such as fisheries. As wellcorruption remains an ongoing issue (Fidelman et al.2014)and curbing it is a priority if long-term conservation successes are to be achieved.

Differing ideologies and understandings of conservation pose a sizable challenge to bridging organizations in the pursuit of better fit. Social groups embody unique knowledge of marine environmentsand can have differing ideas of how resources should be conservedusedor exploited (e.g.von Heland and Clifton2015). A business owner in East Buleleng explained this as: “…a balance between a village life that has been established for centuriesand the rather new and fanciful idea that we need to protect reefswhich has not been understood or grasped in its entirety meaning by the local people” (business ownerpersonal communication 2014). The integration of differing ideologies can be difficult in the CT given an overreliance on a western conservation narrative (Berdej et al.2015)general lack of social science data generationand limited involvement of domestic (social science) academics (Fidelman et al.2014; von Heland et al.2014). Bridging organizations may not possess comparable expertise onfor exampleeconomic developmentpoverty alleviationor urbanization (cf. Foale et al.2013). Moreoverbridging organizations themselvesas mentionedhave their own ideologiesagendas and priorities that can favor particular viewpoints and narratives (see Berdej et al.2015). There is therefore strong need for additional research on the political and ecological dimensions of bridging organizations in the region.

Lastlythe pursuit of conservation fit can be time-consuming and costly. There are significant costs associated with bridging activitiesincluding fundingtime commitmentsstaffingand resource expenses. Funding and capacity for conservation is limited in Indonesiaas elsewhere in the CTand many government bodies do not have staff or budget to engage sufficiently—plans are often made but not followed on the ground (cf. Mills et al.2010). Decades of disempowerment have also constrained the capacity of many local institutions and communities to organizeinnovate and act. This raises questions about the long-term sustainability of conservation fit outcomes in the absence of bridging organizations. For the time beinga reliance on foreign aid has caused tensionsincluding those related to implementation of conservation activities based on donor timelines (cf. von Heland et al.2014). One interviewee voiced frustration over donor timeline expectations that do not align with the reality of building relationships and conducting activities on the ground (anonymous personal communication 2014).

Conclusions: future directions and insights for the CT

Efforts to improve the fit between conservation initiatives (e.g.marine protected areasno-take zones) and the dynamic social dimensions of coastal-marine systems are still rare. This research offers empirical insights for conservation practitioners and policy-makers into the social complexity behind coastal-marine conservation in Baliand in the CT more broadlyand how bridging organizations can improve navigating this complexity. We contribute understanding of the advantages and limitations of bridging organizations as a governance strategy to foster more robust conservation measures that fit underlying dynamic and shifting social contexts. In Indonesiadecentralized governance has presented both the opportunity and challenge to involve multiple social actors and sectors of societyand work on how bridging organization navigate conservation fit issues such as social contextappropriateness of governance and scale holds promise.

Moving forwardour findings highlight a need for additional research to understand the implications of bridging organizations for the long-term ecological and social success of conservation initiatives. In many of our casesfor examplethe conservation initiatives fostered by bridging organizations are not yet institutionalized and further analysis is needed to understand how that process may evolve under different conditions or in their absence. As suchthere is a need to undertake a large “n” comparative analysis of bridging organizations in geographically differentiated marine conservation contexts that reflect different socialpolitical and institutional realities. As mentionedcritical political and ecological analysis is needed of how bridging organizations influence social processes such as poweragenda setting and policy narratives that shape conservation (as per Berdej et al.2015). We do not claim that bridging organizations are guaranteed to enhance conservation fitbut our evidence indicates that they play an important role in leading the conservation process forwardand in fostering multi-actor strategies that meaningfully engage with the social dimensions of marine conservation.

Funding

This research was funded by an International Development Research Centre of Canada Award (no. 107473-99906075-011) to SBand Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada Awards to SB (no. 752-2014-1793) and DA (no. 410- 2010-1109). This research was further supported by a Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada Partnership Grant for the Community Conservation Research Network (no. 895-2011- 1017).

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The reviewer LT declares thatdespite previously collaborating with the author DA as part of a large research projecttheir contributions to the research project were independentthe review process was handled objectively and no conflict of interest exists.

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